Explaining Online Learning Attitudes: Community of Inquiry Presences, Learning Outcomes, and Learner Characteristics

Abstract

Online learning has become a core mode of higher education, intensifying questions about what constitutes high-quality teaching and learning in digital environments and how students form evaluations of their online learning experiences. The Community of Inquiry (CoI) framework highlights teaching, social, and cognitive presence as key pedagogical conditions, yet less is known about how these conditions operate alongside learner characteristics and students’ perceived learning outcomes to shape attitudes toward online learning. This quantitative study surveyed 316 undergraduates enrolled in 22 fully online undergraduate courses. Students reported demographic characteristics (including age, gender, ethnicity, faculty affiliation, learning-disability status) and self-reported cumulative Grade Point Average (GPA) range. Perceptions of CoI presences were measured using a validated CoI instrument, and perceived learning outcomes were assessed as multidimensional gains (cognitive, metacognitive, and social). Analyses included group comparisons and hierarchical regression models predicting attitudes toward online learning. Group comparisons indicated significant differences in perceived presence across demographic groups, although most effects were small. Perceptions of cognitive and social presence also varied across self-reported GPA ranges, whereas teaching presence was relatively stable. In hierarchical regression, demographic variables explained a modest portion of variance in attitudes. Adding CoI presences substantially improved prediction, with cognitive presence emerging as the primary presence-related predictor. When perceived learning outcomes were added, perceived cognitive and metacognitive gains were the strongest predictors of more positive attitudes, and the unique contribution of CoI presences was reduced, suggesting that perceived learning gains may help explain the presence–attitude link. The findings therefore point to a more integrative account of online learning quality, in which students’ attitudes appear to depend less on fixed demographic differences and more on whether online courses are experienced as cognitively meaningful and supportive of reflective growth. Findings underscore the centrality of cognitive engagement and perceived learning gains for shaping students’ attitudes toward online learning and point to actionable design priorities: inquiry-oriented activities, structured reflection and metacognitive scaffolds, and consistent course organization and support that promote equity across diverse learners. These results also inform institutional policy by emphasizing shared online-course quality standards and professional learning focused on evidence-informed design practices.